Writing Samples

I receive occasional requests for samples of my writing. Below are several taken from various times during my college career.

Term Paper | Book Review | Event Reflection | Article Reviews | Lecture Reflections

‘Aerial' Geography: A View from Above (Term Paper - 2005)

I have chosen to focus on the word ‘aerial', as opposed to ‘terrestrial', within geographic writings of the last 100 years. By doing so I have found myself immersed in works concerning aerial observations, aerial aids in teaching, aerial photography and more recently, satellite remote sensing. The word itself is of great interest to me as the use of aerial photography forms the backbone of my master's degree research and everyday efforts as a map technician for the Coastal Geology Group here on campus.

I conducted a thorough search of the geographic journal archives at Sinclair and Hamilton Libraries. My search dead-ended in 1921 and began bulging in the 1950's. It is unfortunate that my earliest source was a book review and not the actual book as the latter would likely contain cited references taking me farther back in time. Realizing that there have always been bird's eye vantage points (ex. mountain tops) and knowing that the first aerial photos were taken were in 1852, I have no doubt that geographers looked down upon the earth's surface prior to 1921. Unfortunately, their written accounts were elusive, if in fact they exist at all.

The sampling of articles summarized and commented on below is not as random as it might appear. I selected the earlier, pre-1950's articles from a very limited pool. From the 1950's onward the number of articles rose dramatically due likely to a variety of successful aerial photo applications utilized during World War II and with their growing use within the budding spatial tradition and quantitative revolution. I purposely avoided articles concerning photogrammetry (there is an entire journal dedicated to the art), ‘photo to map' and photomapping techniques. I did this hoping to get to the real essence of why ‘aerial' views of the earth have found such an important position within so many branches of our discipline.

Realizing that the goal of the assignment is to track major philosophical changes in a geographic topic during the last 100 years (Empiricism, Positivism, Humanism, Marxism, Post-Modernism, Post-Colonialism, Radical, etc.) I feel limited in the range of philosophies that my focus word ‘aerial' may have allowed. This keyword has pushed me towards works describing a geographic research tool, data source, observation style and teaching aid rather than works varying over time by their philosophical underpinnings. Though I would loved to have found articles titled “Interpreting the Unobservable: Aerial Photography and Structuralism” or “HIS Aerial Views: Feminism vs. Traditional Aerial Observations”, I have found the word aerial to be inseparably linked to the seen rather than the unseen, to qualitative and quantitative descriptions of sensual realities…and ultimately to scientific pursuits.

 The following 16 geographic journal works vary from book reviews, to abstracts, to full articles. I offer summaries of each highlighting what I feel are the core points. I then add personal comments and a statement describing how the work contrasts with previous article(s) or to modern geographic thought.

Authors unknown (1921). "Airplane Views of the Alps." The Journal of Geography 20: 36-39.

Summary of a Book Review by Davis, W. M.: Details the geographic significance of aerial photographs contained in a book produced by the Swiss Aeronautical Company. Davis notes that the photos are “marvelous in their revelations” (pg. 37), illustrating natural features of interest to physical geographers such as glaciers as well as dynamic processes like erosion.

Davis also notes the potential importance of the aerial photographs to the teaching of geography by saying, “if similar views could be exhibited to children's classes in geography it would be easy to show that there is more to learn about a city than its name and position” (pg.39).

Personal comments: This earliest ‘aerial' reference seems to open a pair of themes that are repeated throughout most of the remaining works. Firstly, the value and validity of aerial observations in the generation of geographic knowledge and second, the value of aerial photos to teachers of geography.

 I can only imagine the role aerial views and early aerial photographs may have played in the development of the reviewer's once groundbreaking "cycle of erosion" theory. In addition to the comments made by this founder of geomorphology, Davis's lifelong mission to integrate science into the mainstream teaching of geography in pubic schools and higher education is also evident in this book critique.

Joerg, W. L. G. (1923). “The Use of Airplane Photography in City Geography.” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 13: 211.

Abstract summary: Details the significance of aerial photographs in the substitution for or creation of large-scale city maps. The author claims these visual aids are needed for detailed ‘internal' studies of rapidly changing American cities. Joerg describes large-scale city maps, and in turn the newly available aerial photographs, as “fundamental elements in the study of geography” (pg. 211).

Personal comments: This paper seems an obvious early attempt to link aerial photographs to urban geographic studies. Joerg is also attempting to draw parallels between maps with their long, established and accepted tradition in geography and this new data source. The date of the abstract is impressive as Joerg seems to have realized the academic significance of aerial photographs decades before the post World War II explosion of their mainstream use by geographers.

 Unlike the previous book review, this abstract focuses on aerial photo use in map creation rather than in the interpretation of physical features and processes. Though different, these two uses of aerial photographs are still very much alive today.

Percy C. Madeira, J. (1930). "An Aerial Exploration of Central America." The Bulletin of the Geographical Society of Philadelphia: 70-83.

Article Summary: Falling broadly into geography's regional tradition, I found this article challenging to summarize as it seems to fall between a pair of geographic genres. The first genre is the entertaining travel essay, and the second, a research effort seeking scientific validity through the drawing of conclusions based on empirical observations gathered through a defined methodology.

 The author begins by defining the project as an ‘expedition' to the Yucatan region. He continues by stating the project goals, namely to produce of a qualitative description of the physical characteristics of the Yucatan, to locate Mayan ruins and to test the methodological use of airplanes in gathering geographic information from the air. In conclusion the author poses two hypotheses. First, the Yucatan is rising from the sea and second, Mayans historically built on higher ground - a conclusion supported by the findings of an earlier flight by the Lindberg-Carnegie Institute.

Personal comments: Though the author attempted to write a scientific article it ultimately felt unscientific to me due to its frequent jaunts into storytelling. The expeditions primary funding sources -The New York Times and The Evening Bulletin of Philadelphia - likely had much influence on this. I have no problems with storytelling but trying to trust the empirical observations contained between the lines of an anecdote can be straining.

 The author recognizes the scientific shortcomings of the expedition, namely the inability to accurately record spatial locations of the Mayan ruins and, hence, any true chance at verifying their findings. He states, “hunting Mayan ruins in the jungles of Yucatan and Guatemala with a heavy fast flying airplane…is in and of itself not so much a scientific undertaking as a remarkably exciting sport.” (Pg. 83)

 Contrasting the previous abstract concerning aerial photo use, this article focuses on visual observations made from airplane windows with the human eye, not mechanical cameras. While this article demonstrated the airplanes usefulness in reconnoitering it also brought to light some technological limitations of the time. Today, this type of expedition would not likely set off without some type of guidance/mapping system (GPS) and some way of electronically capturing data of the region below. Through the ongoing development of aerial photo use, geographers have seemingly pushed the aerial human-eye observations of this expedition farther away from what is considered scientifically valid.

Russel, J. A. (1939). "Some Applications of Aerial Photography to Geographic Inventory." Annals of the Association of American Geographers 29: 91-93.

Article Summary: This article discusses the interpretation of aerial photography and the subsequent generation of delineated land cover information, both physical and cultural. The author claims the ‘geographic inventory' gathered from photos does not replace but rather supplements and lessens the financial and physical burden of traditional geographic fieldwork. The author calls for the development of visual keys to aid in interpretation. The author also provides a list of advantages and disadvantages between aerial photos and fieldwork.

Personal comments: The use of the terms ‘regional key' and ‘regional inventory' and the time frame of this article again hint at its broader placement within geography's then dominant regional tradition. It is conceivable that this article might be the result of a heated debate going on at the time between traditional field data collectors and the up and coming users of aerial photographs. Aerial photography as a geographic research tool was still a fairly new idea at this time and undoubtedly there were varying views on the validity of their application.

In contrast to the previous article this author jumps back into the use of aerial photography as a tool for identifying the distribution and patterns of physical and cultural features that cover the surface of the earth. In this regard it is similar to Joerg's work concerning aerial photos published 16 years earlier, though certainly showing an expansion of thought. It is conceivable that the use of aerial photographs in quantitative research began with this type of regional land cover assessment.

Sardley, A. J. (1943). "The Aerial Photographs: Their Use and Interpretation.” The Journal of Geography 42: 199

Textbook Review by Ward, H.B.: Details the significance of Sardly's textbook for teachers of aerial photo interpretation. The reviewer's main critique is that the author failed to include enough resources on cultural landscape interpretation, focusing mainly on the geologic and military applications.

Personal comments: This is the first reference I found on a work dedicated solely to teachers interested in training students in the usage of aerial photographs. The multi-disciplinary usefulness of aerial photographs is stressed when the author states: “One hundred and four pages are devoted to geologic maps so that it would appeal to teachers of geology or geography” (pg. 199).

When compared to the previous article this piece seems to show that aerial photographs, still a relatively new technology within geography, had continued to gain ground within the academic/research world. A textbook dedicated to this technology is reflective of this gain. This textbook also reflects the growing use of aerial photographs in quantitative pursuits as it links to possible applications in the more science-based field of geology.

Macfadden, C. H. (1949). "Some Preliminary Notes on the Use of the Light Airplane and 35MM. Camera in Geographic Field Research." Annals of the Association of American Geographers 43: 188-200

Article Summary: The author begins by defining what he feels are two of geography's main goals: to note the distribution of physical and cultural phenomenon and to identify the patterns these phenomenon create. The author goes on to describe the ease at which these goals can be met from the air and the ability a geographer has to generate feelings for a region from overhead. The remainder of the article is dedicated to logistical considerations and applications of aerial photographs captured from small, rented aircraft with a 35mm camera.

Personal comments:  Rather than contrast back to previous article(s) it is valuable to reflect forward 55 years to modern work with aerial photographs. Why does the idea of taking 35mm research photos from an airplane window seem so absurd? On a personal scale I think it is due to the fact that I have been raised (via work) in a scientific, mapping environment. Only with corrected vertical aerial photographs (obtained from a reliable source with acceptable equipment) can we, as modern map scientists, move on to empirical analyses. Macfadden's suggestion to take oblique aerial photographs seems an idea lost in time as this type of photograph is far less valuable to me and used mostly for artistic display or as general reference. This article has helped me recognize a significant split between the qualitative and quantitative communities and their use of aerial photographs. While oblique photographs have added much to geographic knowledge, for example, in the illumination of geologic processes, many on the quantitative end have lost touch with their worth.

Kesseli, J. E. (1952). "Use of Air Photographs by Geographers." Photogrammetric Engineering 18(4): 737-741.

Article Summary: After an interesting description of geographer interests this author dives into a thorough assessment of the use of aerial photographs at the university level in America. The author makes note of competition from pre-existing types of data such as statistical records, written accounts, maps and fieldwork. Kesseli states, “There is no great haste among geography departments to introduce courses in aerial photograph interpretation or, where such courses are offered, there is no general rush of students into such courses.” (pg. 738)

 The author then describes the specific efforts of UC Berkley geography students who “representing part of the future generation of college instructors, have become acutely aware of the usefulness of air photographs in geographic research.” (pg. 741) He notes that these students have found aerial photos particularly useful in conjunction with fieldwork as aerial photos have “permitted recognition of spatial and other relations which could not be seen on the ground, or were only imperfectly realized in the field.”

The author finishes by noting problems he feels are stalling the flood of aerial use by geographers. He claims that aerial photo availability fails in comparison to book or map availability at universities with cost being the determining factor.

Personal comments: I found the author's data competition argument interesting. The rise of humanism and other philosophies since this article was written has undoubtedly added even more completion, though the GIS boom has certainly helped keep aerial photographs on the map. Ironically, while modern mapping has helped spread the use of aerial photographs, the GIS bar is being set higher and higher, leaving many less computer literate geographers feeling incapable of producing results on par with what's being done.

 More than 50 years has past since this article was written. Cost for aerial data is still very high (with availability often low) and researchers are forced to deal with pricing dictated not by their financial means but by the means of developers.

Tillman, F. W. (1956). "Geographic Landscapes from the Air." The Journal of Geography 55: 121-129.

Article Summary: This article begins with a generally understood, though creatively re-described thought, namely that airplane views of the earth's physical and cultural surface promote rapid ‘big picture' geographic understanding. Tillman claims this to be the major difference between modern aerial and traditional terrestrial observations. The author includes a list of literature she recommends geographers should read to increase their aerial observational powers. She then moves on to five pages of descriptive ramblings in a section titled Typical Landscapes between St. Louis and Oaxaca, Mexico. This section claims to be an attempt to “summarize some of the memorable land and seascapes” (pg. 123) this geographer made in-flight.

Personal comments: This seemed an odd article as the author makes a funny turn, seemingly into geography's storytelling past in the descriptive section outlined above. With the growth at this time of analytical popularity I was surprised that Tillman included her “first impressions…as she flew high above the ever-changing landscapes of parts of our earth.” (pg. 128)  An example of one such story-like observation is “one could not help feeling the loneliness of those people living down there in the clusters of little block-like homes.” (pg. 124)

 When compared to the analytical/quantitative trend that appeared to be developing in the previous decades it was interesting to find that non-scientific, visual perceptions still had a place at this time. Reflecting on the continued popularity of National Geographic and similar publications to this day I've come to realize that highly subjective travel descriptions have always had a home in geography. Whether or not geographic observations are empirical, perceptive or near fiction it is the heightened observational powers of both their physical and cultural surrounds which appear to make geographers unique.

Floyd, B. N. (19). "Landscape from the Air." The Journal of Geography 65: 125-12866.

Article Summary: The author begins by describing how significant the advent of flight has been to the discipline of geography. Floyd claims that geographers, now readily equipped with the power of aerial observation and photographs, are attempting more than ever to make sense of world via examination of the wholes rather than the parts. The author claims geographers are increasingly addressing the “the essence of their discipline” (pg. 125), describing the similarities and differences in the physical and cultural landscape. Floyd also lightly differentiates between qualitative impacts and quantitative impacts in addition to the significant changes aerial photographs have made in the geography classroom.

Personal comments: Other than some brief comments on the artistic quality of aerial photographs, I didn't find anything particularly new in this article. I couldn't help but wonder if the piece represents true research or simply a drawing together of pre-described thoughts. I realized during a re-read that the author was really attempting to bring geographers up to date with recent changes in photographic equipment and the hardware used to display aerial photos to students. In contrast to many of the previous articles dealing with aerial photo applications, this article was more an inventory of where geography and the teaching of geography stood in relation to the growth of flight and it's bi-products.

Best, T. D. (1968). "Pictures from Planes: Some Marginal Notes and a Proposition." The Journal of Geography 67: 466-473.

Article Summary: This article first appeared to me as another suggested methodology for taking oblique photographs from airplanes. With further review I discovered the author's real passion is to promote the use of aerial photography in geographic classrooms. The author comes close to demanding that teachers wake up, take their own photos and then start teaching classes with these aerial aids.

 Best claims the article “is intended to prick the collective consciences of those geography teachers who have failed to capitalize on the in-route (in-flight) photo opportunities to help land bound students appreciate the settings of places they study.” (pg. 466) The author claims geography teachers have no excuse to deny their students access to this aerial insight except for a lack of money, conflicts with soviet airspace and/or airsickness.

Personal comments: The article has a rather aggressive tone that I think may well be related to the time and place it was written – California, 1968. Best comments on the frustration he feels in relation to a recent presentation he gave to a group of geographers saying, “If direct viewing of appropriate examples may not motivate a highly specialized audience, how can written words such as these do so.” (pg. 473).

I have a hard time deciding whether or not this work might be considered radical as it doesn't attack society as much as the discipline of geography itself, especially its teachers. It certainly feels as though the author has a problem with the established practices and is calling for a change – the essence of Radical Geography.

In addition to his educational stance I was impressed by Best's efforts to create a grassroots program whereby educational aerial slides could be exchanged between interested teachers. The exchange of teaching aids represents movement within the discipline.

Anderson, J. (1969). "Moral Problems of Remote Sensing Technologies." Antipode 1(1): 54-57.

Article Summary: A short piece of Radical Geographic in which the author, recognizing an increase in the use of remotely sensed imagery, examines whether this technology is being used ethically. The author's main concern is the military's use of remotely sensed data – their ‘sensing without asking' policy. Anderson suggests that this data should be made more readily available and put to better use in non-aggressive, environmental research. He also proposes that countries collecting imagery outside their own borders should acquire clearance from the United Nations.

Personal comments: I was really happy to find this article as I am attempting to understand ethical concerns associated with aerial photo use in the online environment. Where up to this point science had been checking aerial photograph validity through research applications, this radical geographer is checking their broader impact from an ethical standpoint. It is interesting to note that nearly 50 years had passed since William Morris Davis first recognized aerial photos as useful for geographers. This lag in ethical concern was dramatically reduced during the modern development of GIS.

Bushman, D. O. and R. G. Silverman (1970). "Terrestrial, Aerial, and Satellite Photographs." The Journal of Geography 69: 284-290.

Article Summary: The article begins by claiming that the world is growing increasingly visual and that aerial and satellite image use will continue to grow within geography. The authors move on to explain the nature of image interpretation as “conscious or unconscious, accurate or inaccurate, complete or partial” (pg. 285).

The paper shifts to an educational theme where the authors propose that abstract geographic concepts can be taught with help from aerial photographs especially, at local more personal levels. The two concepts highlighted are scale and landscape change, the latter of which involves integration of terrestrial photos gathered via fieldwork.

Personal comments: This was the first article I found which brings to light the inherent perceptional biases involved in photo interpretation. I think this implication was indirect and non-critical as the authors are by no means against the use of aerial photographs in either research or teaching. As I read I could not help but relate these potential bias issues to my own work 34 years later. Our group here on campus specializes in the interpretation of shoreline features from aerial sources. The job of interpreting is typically given to a single person in order to minimize interpersonal variances. In addition, our group generates what we call a ‘digitizing error' which is in fact a measure of variance between interpretations of the same feature by that single person. Realizing that “Interpretation…is an integral part of the communication process through which information is obtain from photographic images” (pg. 285), our group actively addresses the issues highlighted in this article.

Harnapp, V. (1978). "Landsat Imagery: a Tool for Updating Land Use in Gulf Coast Mexico." Journal of Geography 77(4): 141-144.

Article Summary: In this article the author is attempting to quantify land cover change for a region in Mexico. Comparing a 1957 USGS paper map to a 1972 Landsat image, the author is able to calculate changes in acreage and offer explanations for the change. The author dedicates a significant portion of the article to clearly defining the limitations of both products being used, the methodological flaws involved in the comparison and how the data and methodological shortcomings influence the accuracy of his findings.

Personal comments: While the location varies, this use of aerial data has been going on within geography for decades, namely a study of landscape change. I did notice a refinement in the science, one very much in line with my present efforts mapping shoreline change for the Coastal Geology Group. We expended considerable energies exploring the nature and limitations of our data sources, the issues associated with allowing our different data to talk to each other and the overall effect the issues have on our empirical end products. The result of a five-year effort ended in a set of verifiable beach erosion rates, not without issue, being implemented into public policy on Maui. It goes without saying that our group would not have made an impact if we had simply offered our results as qualitative descriptions gathered visually from an airplane window or drawn from oblique aerials taken with our own 35mm cameras.         

Richardson, B. (1982). "Oahu: Perspective from Space." Journal of Geography 81(1): 31-32.

Article Summary: The author offers an empirical account of Oahu drawn from observations made of a Landsat image of Oahu shot in 1978. The author begins with an explanation of the satellite technology then dives into a light description of our islands physical and cultural features. The author also touches on the fact that landscape change can be determined by comparing Landsat images taken at varying times.

Personal comments: Comparing this article to the first work cited in this paper one might conclude that very little has changed in sixty-one years since William Morris Davis brought to light the significance of images of the earth's surface captured from above. The act of interpreting a satellite image versus an aerial photograph is more radically similar than radically different. In this case maybe it is Richardson who is attempting to draw parallels between aerial photographs with their now long, established and accepted tradition in geography and this newer data type. Maybe this too is an attempt to establish satellite imagery as an acceptable research tool.

Baker, S. (1991). "The National Aerial Photographic Data Base and Its Use in Education." The Journal of Geography 90(5): 234-239.

Article Summary: The author's goal here is to highlight what he feels to be a major event for geography, namely the National Aerial Photography Program's effort to shoot two rounds of aerial photographs of the conterminous 48 states within a 10 year span. In addition to solving a major problem - the shortage of aerial photographs - he also notes how the effort opens the door for a wide range of temporal studies. Also noted is how significant this event should appear to teachers of geography.

Personal comments: Nearly 40 years have passed since Kesseli noted a major lack of aerial resources available to geographers. It came as no surprise to sense excitement in this author's words. It was however a bit anti-climatic when the author describes his anticipated use of this “rich visible record” (pg. 238), namely landscape change studies and teaching aids. These two ideas had been in the heads of geographers for decades.

Loyde, R., M. Hodgson, et al. (2002). "Visual Categorization with Aerial Photogaphs." Annals of the Association of American Geographers 92(2): 241-266.

Article Summary: This article outlines three experiments performed to test people's ability to categorize land use from aerial photographs. Testers used speed, accuracy and confidence as the defining variables. The authors noted differences between the sexes, geographers and lay people.

Personal comments: I was wondering when a geographer might get to this. Being an eclectic discipline, it is within our bounds to use techniques borrowed from the school of psychology.  As implicated by the Bushman and Silverman article 32 years earlier, differences exist between interpretations of the same photo by different people. Though very scientific in the way the study was performed, interpretational/perceptual differences, especially in regards to accuracy, are very much in line with the goals of humanism.

In conclusion: I have drawn conclusions concerning the development of the word aerial from a small and partially representative pool of geographic works. Though I can see a logical progression I wouldn't bet the house that it is a perfect summation.

I regards to aerial photographs I noticed they were first recognized and defined as a valuable data source then compared and critiqued against established maps and traditional fieldwork. Aerials then went through an applied stage where the qualitative usefulness of obliques separated themselves from the quantitative usefulness of verticals. This split occurred during the rise of analytical pursuits within the discipline. Visual aerial observations lost ground to these tangible products. While science continually scrutinized the limitations of aerials, Radical Geography eventually checked photo use ethically. Most recently, efforts were made to examine the human introduced variables involved in photo interpretation. In addition, the problems associated with the availability of aerials seems to be clearing itself slowly according to need, though costs are still high. The more recent addition of satellite images seems to fit in nicely into the track previously carved by aerial photos, as the two data types are remarkably similar. In a broader sense, the overall use of aerials is being challenged by recent advancements in non-scientific epistemologies.

 The use of aerial photos in education also follows a similar pattern. First recognized as valuable teaching aid, aerial photos were then developed to fit various teaching needs. A significant split developed between enthusiastic aerial teachers and those less interested.  It should be noted that discussion concerning aerial photo and satellite use in the classroom is as old as the use of these data types in research itself.

On a personal level I found myself relating more and more to the articles as time progressed. This paper has also help me realize how beneficial a University of Hawaii research aircraft might be to physical and human research pursuits here on campus. And why not? The costs for a plane and sensing devices (camera, LIDAR) would be far less than the research vessels built and operated by our Oceanography Department.

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Reasons for the House's Bleakness (Book Review - 1998)

One cannot deny the overwhelming aura of gloom that saturates the pages of Charles Dickens Bleak House.  While the inherent goodness of key characters saves the reader from true despair, the overall, unpleasant picture of 19th century English life that Dickens managed to paint nearly 150 years ago remains valid and readable today. But what drove Dickens in this direction? What pushed him to narrate a tale that focuses on the darker sides of existence? Why did he produce such a bitter social commentary and not an amusing satire of upper-class love lives like Austin's Pride and Prejudice? What's up with Charles Dickens?

Bleak House was written as a serial novel, the ‘pen and paper' predecessor to classic radio programs and modern soap operas. Written in installments, Dickens goal was to hook his readers into returning each time (week? bi-week? month?), by creating suspense amidst a collection of interesting characters and settings. Any shortcoming in the ‘interest generation' department and Dickens mission as a writer of serial novels would certainly have failed. Yet Dickens did not fail, and Bleak House was a commercial success. Indeed, partial credit for the novel's dreary tone needs to be given to the persistent fact that gloom sells, often better than sunshine. Dickens wrote what the mass public wanted to read at the time, what the mass public still wants to read – our own ‘crap'.

Luckily for Dickens, what ‘his' public wanted to read was seemingly what he wanted to write. Appalled by the industrial, urban landscapes (poverty, disease, child labor, etc.), public institutions (churches, courts, schools, etc.), and the effects of booming capitalism on the human psychology (greed, self-gain, etc.) that plagued the day, Dickens could surface his strong feelings on societies evils through his writing, and as a personal bonus, to the delight of readers. Though while fictitious and somewhat larger than life, the ‘make believe' characters and settings from Dickens's works are not accidents or complete deviancies from 19th century English reality. Bleak House represents what Dickens saw, felt pity for, loved, and hated. What he opposed, argued for, smelt, tasted and felt. Bleak House, and all its gloom,was at the time a ‘product' of social demand, written by the right man for the job.

Bleak Story, Bleak Characters

It's hard for a book to be fluffy and beautiful when it's built around an unpleasant topic. In the case of Bleak House, the foul tasting center of the story is a legal ‘probate'; the Jarndyce case. My own confusion during the beginning of the novel took me to the Internet where I found the following explanation of what was going on:

“Technically speaking, ‘probate' is the process by which one proves the validity of a will in court. If there is no one contesting the will, this should not take long. If there are complications, probate can take years. The average length of the probate process is twelve to eighteen months.  “For those of you familiar with the works of Charles Dickens, recall "Bleak House" and the never-ending probate case of Jarndyce vs. Jarndyce.” http: //www.living-trusts.net/intro-living-trusts.html

Its this fictitious Jarndyce case that acts as the proverbial fly paper, trapping directly or indirectly, the novels good and more often not-so good characters. The wealth of the Jarndyce ‘estate', suspended in the corrupt Chancery court, creates a greed-infested dynamic and a division between winners and losers, beneficiaries and victims. The corrupt judges, lawyers, and lessers hold the bleak inspiring power, misused blatantly to their own advantage and financial gain. Headed by the novel's ugliest and most manipulative character, Tulkinghorn, this ‘bad guy' team of characters is whom Dickens desired to attack for personal reasons. The corruption of the 19th century English judicial system was real, and Bleak House was Dickens protest against it. And what better way to protest? - in installments, to hungry followers. Ironically enough, in the end the ‘bad guys' seem to get it all (well, the Tulkster gets blown away but….), as the estate dries up having being successfully milked to the last drop by corruption. Of course the real winners are all whose lives will no longer be attached to the case; the ‘good guys'. At the center of these of course is Esther Summerson, the guiding light who is taken in during her early twenties by the righteous John Jarndyce. Submerged in the bleakness of the novel, her textbook-like angelic qualities form a great punching bag which not only holds up to the gloomy onslaught, but indeed manages to keep the bad guys from completely saturating the novel with misery. Esther role is key, as modern newspaper and news program executives will surely agree; complete bleakness does not sell. In order for readers to be able to judge the bad (a modern train wreck on CNN or the babies death at the brick makers), a reader needs to see some good (this weeks Hawaiian ‘Spelling B' or Esther's pure hearted dialogues with Charlie). Still other characters offer more insight into Dickens's Bleak House construction.

Jo, the diseased, malnourished, uneducated, parentless, homeless, friendless, horseshit sweeping little boy is perhaps my favorite character. This is because he brought out the most feeling, ‘pity' to be more exact. And if attempting to win support of serial readers, and support for a cause, what character (besides maybe a female Jo – Joanna) could do more for you? I can only imagine the public's reaction if Jo was to magically appear on the streets of Waikiki. He'd be all over the papers and news as a ‘victim' of society and the public would send clothes, food, money, soap, education, and love. And isn't this what Dickens was also after? To bring to light a social problem he wanted to fix, namely the downtrodden children (featured in many of his novels) who wandered the London streets in plain view of all, including his readers. Isn't Jo also a protest against the horrid lives suffered by streets children? And isn't it in the best interest of someone like Dickens to paint his subjects in the best (or worst) light possible? I know when writing my resume I always try to make myself look as good as possible in hopes of getting the desired position. Didn't Dickens make Jo look as pitiful as possible to help his cause? What other situation did Dickens hope to bring to light?

Nemo, ex of Lady Deadlock and father of Esther, dies of a heroin overdose. Ironically enough, I recently saw a TV program that examined lesser-known waves of drug addiction, including that of 19th century England. Drugs are taboo and the do sells in the Hollywoodian sense. Movies and TV are covered with drugs because they sell, and surely they sold in this way during Dickens time too.

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The 1999 Bengali Festival – Before, During and After (Event Reflection - 1999)

Prior to the event I was skating down Whitechapel Road when I came across a tall, skinny black man being arrested by a gang of police. What really made the scene for me was a young, white male sitting on a post feet away, sipping on a can of Tenents Super (Beer). As a walked by the drunk, Scottish man a heard him I heard him mumble ‘racist cops'. My eyes lit and I decided to approach him to see what was up. Homeless as he was, I was a bit cautious when I asked him why he thought the cops where racist. He went on to describe the typical scenario we here all the time in the US - something bad being done (in the case the smashing of a Blockbuster Video window), a vague description of the assailant and the first guy walking the streets with a matching description gets popped. This time it was a member of the Senegal community of Whitechapel. My new street dwelling friend went on to explain the predicament of many Senegal males whose let drink and the consumption of ‘cat', a narcotic scrub with amphetamine effects, get the best of many of them. We ended up talking for an hour and I tried to focus the conversation to the Bengali community. He explained to me how he'd been beaten up seriously 5 times in the last few years by wandering gangs of Bengali male youths who don't like him drinking beer on the streets. ‘They got nothing to do but go around lighting the homeless on fire and beating the crap out of each other'. When I asked about Islam he said there was a massive split where kids either follow the ways or went to the other extreme, burning cars, gang fights, crack & heroin abuse and distribution. ‘Yeah, the Bengali's have their hands deep in the drug trade around here. We went on to talk about the prostitutes in the area and how they were all white but the toms were Asian men.

An hour later I was at Spitalfields community farm talking to staff worker and friend Michele. She's been working at the farm for six years and has a lot to say about the changes that have taken place in the area even though she lives in Camden. I asked about the white skinheads in the late seventies and she told me that it had come full circle in the eighties and nineties as the Bengalis got tough. ‘A few years ago it wasn't safe for a white person to walk down most of the streets in this area'. She told me how she has seen a marked increased in the number of Bengali women on the streets and why I couldn't get eye contact with any of them because I was a male – and because I was white. She told me of how the gangs go crazy in the summer, chasing each other around with machetes, and how she once had to be escorted out of the farm by armed police when 200 Bengali youths had her trapped in.  She told me also of how Bengali men go to the farm and ask where her father is if they want to buy eggs or ducks because they don't recognize conversation with her as real. As for attempts of young Bengali to make conversation with her, they usually are very rude saying something like ‘nice tits' in hopes that she'll respond affectionately. She also heard the bomb on brick lane go off and saw smoke billowing up over the neighboring estates a few weeks ago.

As for the festival, I met three people I knew from outside of school and outside the circle of friends that I have here and it made me feel good because I feel I've really made London work for me. I learned loads about Bengali culture and national pride as a watched youth group's (male) parade up and down the streets screaming ‘Bangladesh number one'. I was shocked when youths lit really loud firecrackers in the middle of the street only weeks after the bombing. I saw the terror in so many party goers eyes and wondered ‘how stupid can these people be?' – quickly catching myself as I had judged the Bengali community based on the actions of a few over excited and less than socially conscientious kids. I saw Rita, the young Bengali women who we met on our class trip. I ate cheap Bengali food, listened to bangra (?) music, debate with Muslim Fundamentalists, tried to pry smiles out of Bengali women who seemed so happy to be out in public and soaked up the raging spirit of community exhibited by these relatively impoverished peoples. I felt the tension build and left shortly before a Bengali gang fight with baseball bats kicked off.

P.S. – our guided field trip to Brick Lane didn't take us to the bad part of that community. I can show you the crack-heroin houses and the footbridge littered with spent condoms left by men enjoying ‘lunchtime quickies' and nigh time illegal sex, pictures of burnt out stolen cars and playgrounds and strip bars packed with Bengali men and pimps. It's a fantastic area as you well know but don't let our tour around fool you. There's a lot of roughness happening there.

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Cognitive Maps for Wayfinding: A Methodology for Tourist Map Design by Ray Young (Article Review -2005)

Theories?

I didn't find any references to this thesis being consciously linked to a particular theory or theories, geographic or otherwise.  I assume that because this thesis made it through numerous reviews and was approved by a committee of active geographers that possible links to relevant geographic theory would have come to light and subsequently been integrated (mentioned) by the author. This doesn't mean that the author isn't working under the cover of some ‘taken for granted' theory (ies). For example, many would agree that we work under a governing theory of gravity, yet most researchers would see little usefulness in noting such. Is there a chance that some theories within geography are so taken for granted that they no longer receive mention?

Clear Conceptual Framework?

The author makes it very clear early in the thesis that a few concepts (processes/terms) need to be understood by the reader. I recognized concepts by the capital letters and their definability. The author's understanding of these concepts facilitated his ability to base his research within, or better said, boiling out of these concepts. The thesis would have taken on an entirely different look, feel, and drive without them.  By clearly defining these concepts, and his use of them, the author allows readers to understand not only the finished product (the research) but also how it was built. I would be interested to learn how the author found these concepts as I doubt he came into the masters program with a clear, up-to-date view of ‘geographic' research efforts and conceptual trends.

Interrelated concepts driving research?

Yes…there are and I'm jealous that he found them. The author starts by linking together Visual Cognition, Cognitive Mapping, and Spatial Behavior. He makes clear the non-geographic roots of the first two concepts and is clear to note that the actual act of ‘doing' the concepts are better referred to as ‘mental processes'.  The third concept of Spatial Behavior is lightly touched upon as a lead into another set of concepts contained in the next section.  It was interesting to finally see ‘concepts' and how they can shape research.

Literature review…Geographic?

The concepts listed above, when linked together, don't automatically produce a research product that is geographic. One way to make a work geographic is to base its conceptual core around the work of a well know and respected geographer, in this case, Yi-Fu Tuan. Four years before this thesis was written Dr. Tuan introduced his own concepts of Spatial Ability and Spatial Knowledge and the author presented them as budding out of Spatial Behavior. Joining the first set of concepts with this latter set (produced from within our own realm) allows this research to take on a very geographic tone.

I found it interesting to realize that working under an umbrella of cartographic design gives a researcher a boost in producing a geographic work.  Though many disciplines use maps as support tools for research, the actual art of map creation (map design methodology) still has its true roots within geography. Am I wrong to think that a biologist producing a biological piece of research would have I hard time entitling it “A Methodology for Biological Map Design”?

Philosophy?

I didn't see any particular effort toward noting this.  I was enlightened by other presentations, Tina and Melissa in particular, were it would seem absurd not to pay special attention to noting whose vision the research was seeing or being written through. Hawaiian place and Philippine fisherman have ‘eyes' which differ from my western, white, sciency ones. In this thesis Ray Young's ‘eyes' differ little from my own.

Map Use and Ethics in Coastal Erosion Hazard Management by Mary Anne Maigret (Article Review -2005)

1. How many methods of information gathering?

This thesis took a group of coastal erosion maps, looked at their associated methodologies/findings/results and then attempted to explain their creation and subsequent use by planners from an ethical standpoint. Reading relevant mapping and ethical literature and conversations (interviews) seem to be the author's only methods of data collection. This thesis has no tangible, attached product or statistical component so there was no need of quantitative data gathering instruments (ex. weather station or GPS). There was also no effort to gather masses of information from masses of people (via survey) but more so an effort was made to draw specific information from key persons (coastal erosion mappers and planners) who the author felt would best enlighten the issue of map ethics.

2. Clear description of methods?

Yes, the author explains that in order analyze ‘ethical concerns' (the knowledge creation center point of this thesis) in coastal erosion mapping that she would need to understand the actual mapping processes and the user-end use of the finished maps.  Sources of literature are listed and all relevant interviews and conversations seem to be noted. The author is clear in describing ethical issues on both the mapmaker and user end.

3. Rationale for each method?

If the author states her rationale it didn't jump out at me. I really don't see this being a big part of the thesis regardless, as it would be more important for her to state clearly why she considers her efforts significant.

4. Appropriate methods for author's philosophy?

Sure…reading and conversations seem very appropriate for this type of work. The author is trying to grasp and measure ‘mapping ethics', both on the map creator and user end. Ethical concerns that seem to float around in the air are hard to grab and measure. It seems to me that her analysis is best described in words and that this wordy description can only come from a thorough understanding of ethics gained through literature review and conversation. I have no issue with her methods though I would struggle, as usual, to pinpoint her philosophy.

5. Discussion of reliability, validity, replicability?

Ironic and unrelated…the reliability, validity, replicability of the coastal erosion maps is a major component of this thesis. The reliability, validity, replicability of this thesis itself?…at first glance it hardly seems an issue. I should admit that I did find myself reading this thesis as if I was truth chiseled in stone. I guess I like what she has to say. How can here analysis (perception and merging of literature and interviews) be tested?

6. A clear connection between research problem and gathered information?

Yes…though wish the author had used only coastal erosion mapping instead of trying to set the ‘ethical concern' stage with multiple map types. While I enjoyed the read it also fails to flow with confidence (as did the first 2 theses reviewed), to be specific, I find myself re-reading the same topic multiple times…or at least I think I do. Questions like “Is this all she has to say about this?” or “Haven't I read this earlier on?” keep coming to mind which decreases my confidence that I am getting to big picture of what she is trying to say.

7. Discussion of problems encountered?

I didn't find any specific references to problems. The author does make it clear that ethical concerns are hard to measure and that map ethics (at the time) was just coming to the forefront of debate. Traditional analysis of what is a ‘good' cartographer was usually limited to a mapper's ability to create an effective and accurate visual product.

8. Better Methodologies or Methodology use?

The author doesn't seem to beat her analysis and associated methodology up at all.

Mapping Power: Ironic Effects of Spatial Information Technology by Jeff Fox (Article Review -2005)

This paper and presentation aim to critically assess the impacts of spatial information technology (SIT), closely associated with Geographic Information System (GIS), on South East Asian communities over the last several decades. The goal of this work was not to discredit community based mapping but rather point out the unintended, negative effects in order to improve future efforts by the scientific community and others. While Jeff believes that success, measured by community empowerment, has been achieved, he stresses that the social and ethical implications of SIT must not be ignored.

Several examples of the ironic or unintended effects were provided:

Jeff is careful to separate tools from technology. Tools are objects (ex. GPS or laptop computer) that can be utilized if desired or thrown away if undesired. Tools have an ‘exit option' where an individual or group can retain control over tool adoption. Technology on the other hand is a complex, blanketing system that settles over an area whether the inhabitants want it to or not. When technology settles over an area it is often imperative for inhabitants join in with the technology being implemented around them. The necessary acceptance of a technology may come with unanticipated costs.

In a workshop held in Chaing Mai, Thailand in 2003, parties involved in South East Asian SIT implementation answered questions regarding their experiences with community based mapping. It was confirmed that community-mapping efforts had enhanced some village's ability to manage resources in house and offered other forms of empowerment…very positive outcomes. Unfortunately it was also confirmed that some mapping efforts had caused shifts toward exclusive property ownership and non-traditional resource conflicts…unintended, negative results.

Specific questions that were asked and answered at the workshop included:

I found Jeff's ‘let's stop and think about what we're doing' approach refreshing. One can spent their life tied up in the ever-growing SIT field, never stopping to think and attempt correct the wrongs they may be doing. It is nice to know that critical assessments of the community mapping is taking place alongside map creation itself.

Bathymetric Mapping of Recreational Scuba Dive Sites by Allen Hoof (Article Review -2005)

Working from your advice to relate this class's efforts directly to our own master's degree efforts, I contacted my advisor Ev Wingert and asked him to help me pick an appropriate thesis to review for this assignment. He pointed me toward a handful of  ‘product' oriented papers, works where research was built around the production of a tangible object, in this case an underwater map.

What is the research problem? The author finds a problem in the frustration of recreational scuba divers (including himself) in their efforts to meet dive objectives, namely, finding and re-finding the best points of a particular dive site. The author proposes mapping recreational dive sites but quickly points out that simply creating maps wouldn't fulfill the requirements of a masters program. Two clear ‘problems' are outlined in the opening pages, the first being diver frustration, which drives the research and the second of equating map creation and knowledge creation, a necessity of master program completion.

Is it clearly stated at the outset? How the author's interests lead him to the research problem is very clearly stated in the opening preface of the work. It did take a little more work to catch how the author would offer a possible solution to the problem, one worthy of a master degree. This difficulty is due to the fact that the driving research problem of diver frustration isn't mentioned in the stated hypothesis. It was interesting to see that a hypothesis can stand alone without the author's motivations cluttering it up. I didn't know this could be done.

What are the sub-problems? While there is a list of surveying/map accuracy sub-problems listed under the hypothesis they are seemingly insignificant when compared to how the author proposes (directly and indirectly) turning a ‘map into a masters thesis'. In my mind, yet in the author's voice, his masters program ‘problem' unfolded as such:

  1. I can't just make a map…I have to make a map and complete a master's thesis.
  2. A master's thesis requires knowledge creation.
  3. Hmmm…I could make a killer map implementing modern technologies but I don't and won't have access to these technologies.
  4. Maybe I can use existing, land based survey methods…underwater. Maybe????
  5. I should define this query as a hypothesis.
  6. Now how am I going to test my hypothesis?
  7. Test A, Test B, Test C…
  8. Hey look…I'm making a map, addressing a problem that concerns me and writing a masters thesis at the same time!! Nice one.

Why this Topic? This research project grew out of two of the author's interests: scuba diving and cartography. The author really didn't have to look outside himself at all, he just had to be aware of his emotions after a unsatisfying dive and decide to do something about it. Ironically it would be interesting to talk to the author about his experience in thesis creation, as I doubt he ever came up from a dive thinking, “Wow, that dive stunk. I couldn't find anything. I think I'll write a masters thesis!!” A masters program is a funny place to do something. I wonder if the author even asked himself, “Why am I trying to make a dive map here?”

How significant? This topic is pretty significant to me. It shows that I might have a home in geography after all. “Knock a product around” and out pops a masters degree…I hope.

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Shrimp Aquaculture in Thailand by Brian Szuster (Lecture Reflection - 2005)

Dr. Szuster's talk focused on shrimp aquaculture along the northern coast of Thailand. He completed an assessment of the aquaculture rich region focusing on environmental impacts and industry instability. During his research Brian became well informed not only in the measurable aspects of the industry (spatial, environmental) but also the less measurable, perceptual mindsets of the Thai shrimp farmers and government groups involved in shrimp production.  Brian uses this style of research to provide well-rounded insight to those in charge of attempting management improvements.

Data Collected: One of the main quantitative data sets collected was water quality as measured from samples taken from the network of waterways running surrounding existing shrimp ponds. It was found that overall water quality was seriously degraded in many places and characterized by low dissolved oxygen levels and high fecal counts. Brian also found that a major contributor to water quality degradation was the inappropriate disposal of the anoxic sludge produce by each shrimp pond. Brian explored possible management solutions to better dispose of this environmentally degrading aquaculture by-product.

Another set of data consisted of economic values reflecting total production, fluctuations in production and the shifting production of shrimp species. This financial data was examined in relation to environmental factors in hopes of finding correlations between booms and busts. Brian found that disease was a major factor controlling the highly unstable shrimp aquaculture system not only in Thailand but also elsewhere in Asia.

Future: Dr. Szuster considers himself to be an applied geographer. His future efforts will likely involve problematic, real world issues he feels might be improved through his understanding of integrated management practices. His focus and interest seems to be in the human/environmental field.

High Elevation Pines Out West by Stacy Jorgenson (Lecture Reflection - 2005)

Stacy Jorgenson has a background in botany (MA) and Geography (PhD). Her present interest is in evolutionary biogeography, namely how plant evolution plays out in a spatial setting. Stacy's presentation illustrated the methods and applied value of studying the discontinuous distribution of mountain top white pines (western U.S.) at a genetic level.

An ongoing drive within Stacy's work is the conservation of genetic diversity. Threats to genetic diversity come from both natural (ex. disease) and human (ex. development) sources.  Stacy's efforts to help provide a sustainable future for white pines in the Rocky Mountains (+/-) required an assessment of genetic variability of different populations at a regional scale. While Stacy's understanding of genetics is well outside my area of expertise, her integration of genetic data with GIS technology was fascinating and enlightening. Stacy used genetic information as base data for exploring and analyzing spatial patterns of present day white pine groupings – though she was careful to admit that her exploration into the true analytical power of GIS has just begun.

Possible positive implications of Stacy's work:

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